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Since update Xamarin.Android cannot build debug configuration without explicit manifest debug=true

I am in the process of upgrading a Xamarin Android application to SDK 31, monodroid 12 and the latest androidx packages.
Every thing is now up and running except if I do not add the android:debuggable=true attribute to the android manifest I can not create debug builds.
The issue does not happen for release builds
The output error is
Target _ManifestMerger:
/Library/Java/JavaVirtualMachines/microsoft-11.jdk/Contents/Home/bin/java -cp /Library/Frameworks/Xamarin.Android.framework/Libraries/xbuild/Xamarin/Android/manifestmerger.jar com.xamarin.manifestmerger.Main obj/Debug/android/manifestmerger.rsp
/Users/Projects/app/Droid/obj/Debug/AndroidManifest.xml:14:230-255 Error:
Attribute application#debuggable value=(true) from AndroidManifest.xml:14:230-255 is also present at AndroidManifest.xml:15:9-35 value=(false).
Suggestion: add 'tools:replace="android:debuggable"' to element at AndroidManifest.xml:14:3-56:17 to override.
/Library/Frameworks/Mono.framework/External/xbuild/Xamarin/Android/Xamarin.Android.Common.targets(1489,3): error MSB6006: "java" exited with code 1.
Done building target "_ManifestMerger" in project "Droid.csproj" -- FAILED.
To get this working I currently have applied the following to the application node in the AndroidManifest.xml
tools:replace="android:debuggable" android:debuggable="true"
I would really like to figure out what this is and get it removed for obvious reasons before release.

AndroidManifest.xml merger failing, cached intermediate file Visual Studio Xamarin Forms Android

Strange problem with Manifest Merger, Visual Studio Mac, Xamarin Forms (5.0.0.2125), Android project, SDK 29 to 30. Problem initiated from an extra ">" in the Properties/AndroidManifest.xml file. That generated the error below, indicating the xml structure wasn't closed; line 35, column 11 being was the last line and character of the Properties/AndroidManifest.xml.
/Library/Frameworks/Mono.framework/External/xbuild/Xamarin/Android/Xamarin.Android.Common.targets(3,3): Error AMM0000: Error: org.xml.sax.SAXParseException; lineNumber: 35; columnNumber: 11; XML document structures must start and end within the same entity. (AMM0000)
So, I edited out the extra character, and the obj/debug/AndroidManifest.xml is created and looks right, however, the build error remains the same!
Subsequent complete rewrites and edits of the Properties/AndroidManifest.xml file have only 2 outcomes
Entering an erroneous xml format will generate the appropriate errors describing the error.
Entering a correct xml format, with any combination of entries, lines and characters will generate a correct obj/debug/AndroidManifest.xml file with the the correct Properties/AndroidManifest.xml content. However, the original build errors stay, with the " line 35, column 11 being was the last line and character of the Properties/AndroidManifest.xml." error.
So, something cached, somewhere, but no clue where. Started during an aborted simulator build and has been here ever since.
Have tried quite few things including:
cleaning, rebuilding and many combinations
remove obj and bin
removing/adding declarations in the AndroidManifest.xml
using different AndroidManifest.xml files
deleting AndroidManifest.xml and running
restoring from cloud a different version of solutions
commenting out Activity declaration on MainActivity
reinstall of VS for Mac
I think it is similar to this bug
Xamarin android Manifest being replaced on build. only solution seems to be to repair visual studio
Has anyone seen this type of bug before?
Help much appreciated as have run out of ideas here.
AndroidManifest.xml
<manifest xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/android" android:versionCode="17" android:versionName="1.17" package="com.mycompany.myapp">
<uses-sdk android:minSdkVersion="29" android:targetSdkVersion="30" />
<application android:label="myapp" android:icon="#mipmap/ic_launcher" android:supportsRtl="true"></application>
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.ACCESS_NETWORK_STATE" />
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.INTERNET" />
<uses-permission android:name="android.permission.READ_EXTERNAL_STORAGE" />
</manifest>

Solved here, github.com/xamarin/xamarin-android/issues/6385. Was a problem in a Nuget Firebase library AndroidManifest.xml file. Unfortunately the error reporting in VS Mac Manifest merging doesn't report which of the 140+ AndroidManifest.xml files has the problem. However, with a bit of sleuthing, there is a way to eventually work it out.

android:targetPackage cannot resolve symbol

this might seem trivial but I can't understand why I'm getting this error.
I downloaded the sample app activityInstrumentation( from Android Studio File -> import Sample) and inside the testing project manifest I get an unresolved symbol for
android:targetPackage="com.example.android.activityinstrumentation".
After that I've created a manifest for my application and still there is an unresolved symbol on the attribute.
My application project dir and test project dir are:
app/src/main/java/com/example/appname
where manifest has
package="com.example.appname"
app/src/androidTest/java/com/example/appname
where manifest has
<manifest
...
package="com.example.appname.tests"
...
android:targetPackage="com.example.appname"
...
</manifest>
Please help me sort this out. I don't know what else I can do: using a sample app to create a full fledged test project was my very last hope.

You must specify android:targetPackage in instrumentation tag.
[http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/manifest/instrumentation-element.html
]

I see the same thing. Seems to be only false alert produced by the lint code inspection. When you run analysis (Analyze->Inspect code...) and open "Inspection" tab you can select the warning and mark it Suppress for tag. That will get rid of the warning.

Android test project is crashing with error "Test run failed: Instrumentation run failed due to 'Process crashed.'"

My problem seems little different than here Test run failed: Instrumentation run failed due to 'Process crashed.' when testing multiple Android activity
I have followed steps given in the pdf. I have created test project "TestAndroidCalculatorBlackbox" (do we need to have two project one test and one main project, perhaps this could be the reason, cause in Robotium "Getting Started" link they want us to create projects for Notepad), and added jars robotium-solo-5.0.1.jar,robotium-solo-1.6.0.jar, to get rid of red error lines below solo. functions and jay.way package.
I am attaching the error screenshot:
y AndroidManifest.xml:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<manifest xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/android"
package="com.testcalculator"
android:versionCode="1"
android:versionName="1.0" >
<uses-sdk android:minSdkVersion="8" />
<instrumentation
android:name="android.test.InstrumentationTestRunner"
android:targetPackage="com.testcalculator" />
<application
android:icon="#drawable/ic_launcher"
android:label="#string/app_name" android:debuggable="true">
<uses-library android:name="android.test.runner" />
</application>
</manifest>
and I have package added in instrumentation list:
c:\> adb shell pm list instrumentation
instrumentation:PACKAGE.test.test/android.test.InstrumentationTestRunner (target=PACKAGE)
instrumentation:PACKAGE.test.test.test.test.test.test/android.test.InstrumentationTestRunner (target=PACKAGE.test.test)
instrumentation:com.example.android.apis/.app.LocalSampleInstrumentation (target=com.example.android.apis)
>> instrumentation:com.testcalculator/android.test.InstrumentationTestRunner (target=com.testcalculator) <<

For those migrating to or currently using Androidx, this error results from using
testInstrumentationRunner "android.support.test.runner.AndroidJUnitRunner" instead of testInstrumentationRunner "androidx.test.runner.AndroidJUnitRunner".
Using the latter resolves the error completely.

Don't attach more than one robotium library. robotium-solo-1.6.0.jar should be removed. It's deprecated and you really shouldn't use it anymore.
Is your target application already installed? It should be installed, if you are going to run tests for it. You can not install it only if your test project has reference to target project.
If you have separate APKs for application and instrumentation you should change package in your manifest. You actually have "com.testcalculator" and target package is the same - they should be different. By the way I don't see sources of application in your project, so application part should be removed.
Your error doesn't say much, it's always good to post stacktrace from LogCat.
Read manuals before you start writing tests:
http://developer.android.com/tools/testing/testing_android.html
https://code.google.com/p/robotium/w/list

Had this same problem and fixed it by setting up AndroidJUnitRunner https://developer.android.com/training/testing/junit-runner.html

For the developer who hasn't used androidx yet. Seeing the LogCat solved the issue for me which was deleting these line running in the wrong thread because of RxJava.
companion object {
#get:ClassRule #JvmStatic
val testSchedulerRule = RxImmediateSchedulerRule()
}

In my case it was a StrictMode policy violation caused by AndroidJUnitRunner:
D/StrictMode: StrictMode policy violation: android.os.strictmode.UntaggedSocketViolation: [...]
W/System.err: StrictMode VmPolicy violation with POLICY_DEATH; shutting down.
Disabling the check detectUntaggedSockets() when running an Espresso test fixed it for me. See this question for how to check for that.

Android Application class not found

In my application I use RoboGuice and the configuration for RoboGuice requires to add an Application-class and specify it in the AndroidManifest.xml file in the application-tag using the 'android:name' attribute.
So this is how my applicaiton-tag in the manifest looks like:
<application android:label="Worktime" android:icon="#drawable/logo" android:name=".guice.Application">
This always works and still does when I compile inside my IDE (IntelliJ) and deploy it to my device.
However when I want to run my tests using Ant (and only via Ant, this also still works in the IDE) I have this error on the console:
[exec] android.test.suitebuilder.TestSuiteBuilder$FailedToCreateTests:INSTRUMENTATION_RESULT: shortMsg=Unable to instantiate application eu.vranckaert.worktime.guice.Application: java.lang.ClassNotFoundException: eu.vranckaert.worktime.guice.Application in loader dalvik.system.PathClassLoader#44e88928
[exec] INSTRUMENTATION_RESULT: longMsg=java.lang.RuntimeException: Unable to instantiate application eu.vranckaert.worktime.guice.Application: java.lang.ClassNotFoundException: eu.vranckaert.worktime.guice.Application in loader dalvik.system.PathClassLoader#44e88928
This has worked before but started failing since I upgraded my 'Android SDK Tools' to revision 17 and the 'Android SDK Platform-tools' to revision 11.
Anyone who had this issue also or who knows how to fix it?

I think that the error saying
java.lang.ClassNotFoundException:
is occur only when you have create new class Activity and not declare(register) that in manifest file
please check if you have any new activity and not declare(register) that activity in manifest file
Thanks.

we might have encountered the same error - In my case the solution was to separate the Ant targets to two calls (i.e. "ant myParameters myTarget1 myTarget2", and "ant myParameters debug delivery"). Hope this works for you, anyhow - Google need to add better support for their undocumented/faulty changes (and stackoverflow isn't the best place for questions that are not originated in stupidity, as the lifetime of a complex question isn't too long here).